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@c Copyright (C) 1996-2018 John W. Eaton
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@node Data Types
@chapter Data Types
@cindex data types

All versions of Octave include a number of built-in data types,
including real and complex scalars and matrices, character strings,
a data structure type, and an array that can contain all data types.

It is also possible to define new specialized data types by writing a
small amount of C++ code.  On some systems, new data types can be loaded
dynamically while Octave is running, so it is not necessary to recompile
all of Octave just to add a new type.  @xref{External Code Interface}, for
more information about Octave's dynamic linking capabilities.
@ref{User-defined Data Types} describes what you must do to define a
new data type for Octave.

@c typeinfo libinterp/octave-value/ov-typeinfo.cc
@anchor{XREFtypeinfo}
@deftypefn  {} {} typeinfo ()
@deftypefnx {} {} typeinfo (@var{expr})

Return the type of the expression @var{expr}, as a string.

If @var{expr} is omitted, return a cell array of strings containing all the
currently installed data types.
@seealso{@ref{XREFclass,,class}, @ref{XREFisa,,isa}}
@end deftypefn


@menu
* Built-in Data Types::
* User-defined Data Types::
* Object Sizes::
@end menu

@node Built-in Data Types
@section Built-in Data Types
@cindex data types, built-in
@cindex built-in data types

The standard built-in data types are real and complex scalars and
matrices, ranges, character strings, a data structure type, and cell
arrays.  Additional built-in data types may be added in future versions.
If you need a specialized data type that is not currently provided as a
built-in type, you are encouraged to write your own user-defined data
type and contribute it for distribution in a future release of Octave.

The data type of a variable can be determined and changed through the
use of the following functions.

@c class libinterp/octave-value/ov-class.cc
@anchor{XREFclass}
@deftypefn  {} {@var{classname} =} class (@var{obj})
@deftypefnx {} {} class (@var{s}, @var{id})
@deftypefnx {} {} class (@var{s}, @var{id}, @var{p}, @dots{})
Return the class of the object @var{obj}, or create a class with
fields from structure @var{s} and name (string) @var{id}.

Additional arguments name a list of parent classes from which the new class
is derived.
@seealso{@ref{XREFtypeinfo,,typeinfo}, @ref{XREFisa,,isa}}
@end deftypefn


@c isa libinterp/octave-value/ov-class.cc
@anchor{XREFisa}
@deftypefn {} {} isa (@var{obj}, @var{classname})
Return true if @var{obj} is an object from the class @var{classname}.

@var{classname} may also be one of the following class categories:

@table @asis
@item @qcode{"float"}
Floating point value comprising classes @qcode{"double"} and
@qcode{"single"}.

@item @qcode{"integer"}
Integer value comprising classes (u)int8, (u)int16, (u)int32, (u)int64.

@item @qcode{"numeric"}
Numeric value comprising either a floating point or integer value.
@end table

If @var{classname} is a cell array of string, a logical array of the same
size is returned, containing true for each class to which @var{obj}
belongs to.

@seealso{@ref{XREFclass,,class}, @ref{XREFtypeinfo,,typeinfo}}
@end deftypefn


@c cast scripts/miscellaneous/cast.m
@anchor{XREFcast}
@deftypefn {} {} cast (@var{val}, "@var{type}")
Convert @var{val} to data type @var{type}.

Both @var{val} and @var{type} are typically one of the following built-in
classes:

@example
@group
"double"
"single"
"logical"
"char"
"int8"
"int16"
"int32"
"int64"
"uint8"
"uint16"
"uint32"
"uint64"
@end group
@end example

The value @var{val} may be modified to fit within the range of the new type.

Examples:

@example
@group
cast (-5, "uint8")
   @result{} 0
cast (300, "int8")
   @result{} 127
@end group
@end example

Programming Note: This function relies on the object @var{val} having a
conversion method named @var{type}.  User-defined classes may implement only
a subset of the full list of types shown above.  In that case, it may be
necessary to call cast twice in order to reach the desired type.
For example, the conversion to double is nearly always implemented, but
the conversion to uint8 might not be.  In that case, the following code will
work

@example
cast (cast (@var{user_defined_val}, "double"), "uint8")
@end example

@seealso{@ref{XREFtypecast,,typecast}, @ref{XREFint8,,int8}, @ref{XREFuint8,,uint8}, @ref{XREFint16,,int16}, @ref{XREFuint16,,uint16}, @ref{XREFint32,,int32}, @ref{XREFuint32,,uint32}, @ref{XREFint64,,int64}, @ref{XREFuint64,,uint64}, @ref{XREFdouble,,double}, @ref{XREFsingle,,single}, @ref{XREFlogical,,logical}, @ref{XREFchar,,char}, @ref{XREFclass,,class}, @ref{XREFtypeinfo,,typeinfo}}
@end deftypefn


@c typecast libinterp/corefcn/typecast.cc
@anchor{XREFtypecast}
@deftypefn {} {@var{y} =} typecast (@var{x}, "@var{class}")
Return a new array @var{y} resulting from interpreting the data of @var{x}
in memory as data of the numeric class @var{class}.

Both the class of @var{x} and @var{class} must be one of the built-in
numeric classes:

@example
@group
"logical"
"char"
"int8"
"int16"
"int32"
"int64"
"uint8"
"uint16"
"uint32"
"uint64"
"double"
"single"
"double complex"
"single complex"
@end group
@end example

@noindent
the last two are only used with @var{class}; they indicate that a
complex-valued result is requested.  Complex arrays are stored in memory as
consecutive pairs of real numbers.  The sizes of integer types are given by
their bit counts.  Both logical and char are typically one byte wide;
however, this is not guaranteed by C++.  If your system is IEEE conformant,
single and double will be 4 bytes and 8 bytes wide, respectively.
@qcode{"logical"} is not allowed for @var{class}.

If the input is a row vector, the return value is a row vector, otherwise it
is a column vector.

If the bit length of @var{x} is not divisible by that of @var{class}, an
error occurs.

An example of the use of typecast on a little-endian machine is

@example
@group
@var{x} = uint16 ([1, 65535]);
typecast (@var{x}, "uint8")
@result{} [   1,   0, 255, 255]
@end group
@end example
@seealso{@ref{XREFcast,,cast}, @ref{XREFbitpack,,bitpack}, @ref{XREFbitunpack,,bitunpack}, @ref{XREFswapbytes,,swapbytes}}
@end deftypefn


@c swapbytes scripts/miscellaneous/swapbytes.m
@anchor{XREFswapbytes}
@deftypefn {} {} swapbytes (@var{x})
Swap the byte order on values, converting from little endian to big endian
and vice versa.

For example:

@example
@group
swapbytes (uint16 (1:4))
@result{} [   256   512   768  1024]
@end group
@end example

@seealso{@ref{XREFtypecast,,typecast}, @ref{XREFcast,,cast}}
@end deftypefn


@c bitpack libinterp/corefcn/typecast.cc
@anchor{XREFbitpack}
@deftypefn {} {@var{y} =} bitpack (@var{x}, @var{class})
Return a new array @var{y} resulting from interpreting the logical array
@var{x} as raw bit patterns for data of the numeric class @var{class}.

@var{class} must be one of the built-in numeric classes:

@example
@group
"double"
"single"
"double complex"
"single complex"
"char"
"int8"
"int16"
"int32"
"int64"
"uint8"
"uint16"
"uint32"
"uint64"
@end group
@end example

The number of elements of @var{x} should be divisible by the bit length of
@var{class}.  If it is not, excess bits are discarded.  Bits come in
increasing order of significance, i.e., @code{x(1)} is bit 0, @code{x(2)} is
bit 1, etc.

The result is a row vector if @var{x} is a row vector, otherwise it is a
column vector.
@seealso{@ref{XREFbitunpack,,bitunpack}, @ref{XREFtypecast,,typecast}}
@end deftypefn


@c bitunpack libinterp/corefcn/typecast.cc
@anchor{XREFbitunpack}
@deftypefn {} {@var{y} =} bitunpack (@var{x})
Return a logical array @var{y} corresponding to the raw bit patterns of
@var{x}.

@var{x} must belong to one of the built-in numeric classes:

@example
@group
"double"
"single"
"char"
"int8"
"int16"
"int32"
"int64"
"uint8"
"uint16"
"uint32"
"uint64"
@end group
@end example

The result is a row vector if @var{x} is a row vector; otherwise, it is a
column vector.
@seealso{@ref{XREFbitpack,,bitpack}, @ref{XREFtypecast,,typecast}}
@end deftypefn


@menu
* Numeric Objects::
* Missing Data::
* String Objects::
* Data Structure Objects::
* Cell Array Objects::
@end menu

@node Numeric Objects
@subsection Numeric Objects
@cindex numeric constant
@cindex numeric value

Octave's built-in numeric objects include real, complex, and integer
scalars and matrices.  All built-in floating point numeric data is
currently stored as double precision numbers.  On systems that use the
IEEE floating point format, values in the range of approximately
@tex
 $2.2251\times10^{-308}$ to $1.7977\times10^{308}$
@end tex
@ifnottex
 2.2251e-308 to 1.7977e+308
@end ifnottex
 can be stored, and the relative precision is approximately
@tex
 $2.2204\times10^{-16}$.
@end tex
@ifnottex
 2.2204e-16.
@end ifnottex
The exact values are given by the variables @code{realmin},
@code{realmax}, and @code{eps}, respectively.

Matrix objects can be of any size, and can be dynamically reshaped and
resized.  It is easy to extract individual rows, columns, or submatrices
using a variety of powerful indexing features.  @xref{Index Expressions}.

@xref{Numeric Data Types}, for more information.

@node Missing Data
@subsection Missing Data
@cindex missing data

It is possible to represent missing data explicitly in Octave using
@code{NA} (short for ``Not Available'').  Missing data can only be
represented when data is represented as floating point numbers.  In this
case missing data is represented as a special case of the representation
of @code{NaN}.

@c NA libinterp/corefcn/data.cc
@anchor{XREFNA}
@deftypefn  {} {} NA
@deftypefnx {} {} NA (@var{n})
@deftypefnx {} {} NA (@var{n}, @var{m})
@deftypefnx {} {} NA (@var{n}, @var{m}, @var{k}, @dots{})
@deftypefnx {} {} NA (@dots{}, @var{class})
Return a scalar, matrix, or N-dimensional array whose elements are all equal
to the special constant used to designate missing values.

Note that NA always compares not equal to NA (NA != NA).
To find NA values, use the @code{isna} function.

When called with no arguments, return a scalar with the value @samp{NA}.

When called with a single argument, return a square matrix with the
dimension specified.

When called with more than one scalar argument the first two arguments are
taken as the number of rows and columns and any further arguments specify
additional matrix dimensions.

The optional argument @var{class} specifies the return type and may be
either @qcode{"double"} or @qcode{"single"}.
@seealso{@ref{XREFisna,,isna}}
@end deftypefn


@c isna libinterp/corefcn/mappers.cc
@anchor{XREFisna}
@deftypefn {} {} isna (@var{x})
Return a logical array which is true where the elements of @var{x} are
NA (missing) values and false where they are not.

For example:

@example
@group
isna ([13, Inf, NA, NaN])
     @result{} [ 0, 0, 1, 0 ]
@end group
@end example
@seealso{@ref{XREFisnan,,isnan}, @ref{XREFisinf,,isinf}, @ref{XREFisfinite,,isfinite}}
@end deftypefn


@node String Objects
@subsection String Objects
@cindex strings
@cindex character strings
@opindex "
@opindex @code{'}

A character string in Octave consists of a sequence of characters
enclosed in either double-quote or single-quote marks.  Internally,
Octave currently stores strings as matrices of characters.  All the
indexing operations that work for matrix objects also work for strings.

@xref{Strings}, for more information.

@node Data Structure Objects
@subsection Data Structure Objects
@cindex structures
@cindex data structures

Octave's data structure type can help you to organize related objects of
different types.  The current implementation uses an associative array
with indices limited to strings, but the syntax is more like C-style
structures.

@xref{Structures}, for more information.

@node Cell Array Objects
@subsection Cell Array Objects
@cindex cell arrays

A Cell Array in Octave is general array that can hold any number of
different data types.

@xref{Cell Arrays}, for more information.

@node User-defined Data Types
@section User-defined Data Types
@cindex user-defined data types
@cindex data types, user-defined

Someday I hope to expand this to include a complete description of
Octave's mechanism for managing user-defined data types.  Until this
feature is documented here, you will have to make do by reading the code
in the @file{ov.h}, @file{ops.h}, and related files from Octave's
@file{src} directory.

@node Object Sizes
@section Object Sizes

The following functions allow you to determine the size of a variable or
expression.  These functions are defined for all objects.  They return
@minus{}1 when the operation doesn't make sense.  For example, Octave's
data structure type doesn't have rows or columns, so the @code{rows} and
@code{columns} functions return @minus{}1 for structure arguments.

@c ndims libinterp/corefcn/data.cc
@anchor{XREFndims}
@deftypefn {} {} ndims (@var{a})
Return the number of dimensions of @var{a}.

For any array, the result will always be greater than or equal to 2.
Trailing singleton dimensions are not counted.

@example
@group
ndims (ones (4, 1, 2, 1))
    @result{} 3
@end group
@end example
@seealso{@ref{XREFsize,,size}}
@end deftypefn


@c columns libinterp/corefcn/data.cc
@anchor{XREFcolumns}
@deftypefn {} {} columns (@var{a})
Return the number of columns of @var{a}.
@seealso{@ref{XREFrows,,rows}, @ref{XREFsize,,size}, @ref{XREFlength,,length}, @ref{XREFnumel,,numel}, @ref{XREFisscalar,,isscalar}, @ref{XREFisvector,,isvector}, @ref{XREFismatrix,,ismatrix}}
@end deftypefn


@c rows libinterp/corefcn/data.cc
@anchor{XREFrows}
@deftypefn {} {} rows (@var{a})
Return the number of rows of @var{a}.
@seealso{@ref{XREFcolumns,,columns}, @ref{XREFsize,,size}, @ref{XREFlength,,length}, @ref{XREFnumel,,numel}, @ref{XREFisscalar,,isscalar}, @ref{XREFisvector,,isvector}, @ref{XREFismatrix,,ismatrix}}
@end deftypefn


@c numel libinterp/corefcn/data.cc
@anchor{XREFnumel}
@deftypefn  {} {} numel (@var{a})
@deftypefnx {} {} numel (@var{a}, @var{idx1}, @var{idx2}, @dots{})
Return the number of elements in the object @var{a}.

Optionally, if indices @var{idx1}, @var{idx2}, @dots{} are supplied,
return the number of elements that would result from the indexing

@example
@var{a}(@var{idx1}, @var{idx2}, @dots{})
@end example

Note that the indices do not have to be scalar numbers.  For example,

@example
@group
@var{a} = 1;
@var{b} = ones (2, 3);
numel (@var{a}, @var{b})
@end group
@end example

@noindent
will return 6, as this is the number of ways to index with @var{b}.
Or the index could be the string @qcode{":"} which represents the colon
operator.  For example,

@example
@group
@var{a} = ones (5, 3);
numel (@var{a}, 2, ":")
@end group
@end example

@noindent
will return 3 as the second row has three column entries.

This method is also called when an object appears as lvalue with cs-list
indexing, i.e., @code{object@{@dots{}@}} or @code{object(@dots{}).field}.
@seealso{@ref{XREFsize,,size}, @ref{XREFlength,,length}, @ref{XREFndims,,ndims}}
@end deftypefn


@c length libinterp/corefcn/data.cc
@anchor{XREFlength}
@deftypefn {} {} length (@var{a})
Return the length of the object @var{a}.

The length is 0 for empty objects, 1 for scalars, and the number of elements
for vectors.  For matrix or N-dimensional objects, the length is the number
of elements along the largest dimension
(equivalent to @w{@code{max (size (@var{a}))}}).
@seealso{@ref{XREFnumel,,numel}, @ref{XREFsize,,size}}
@end deftypefn


@c size libinterp/corefcn/data.cc
@anchor{XREFsize}
@deftypefn  {} {@var{sz} =} size (@var{a})
@deftypefnx {} {@var{dim_sz} =} size (@var{a}, @var{dim})
@deftypefnx {} {[@var{rows}, @var{cols}, @dots{}, @var{dim_N_sz}] =} size (@dots{})
Return a row vector with the size (number of elements) of each dimension for
the object @var{a}.

When given a second argument, @var{dim}, return the size of the corresponding
dimension.

With a single output argument, @code{size} returns a row vector.  When called
with multiple output arguments, @code{size} returns the size of dimension N
in the Nth argument.  The number of rows, dimension 1, is returned in the
first argument, the number of columns, dimension 2, is returned in the
second argument, etc.  If there are more dimensions in @var{a} than there are
output arguments, @code{size} returns the total number of elements in the
remaining dimensions in the final output argument.

Example 1: single row vector output

@example
@group
size ([1, 2; 3, 4; 5, 6])
   @result{} [ 3, 2 ]
@end group
@end example

Example 2: number of elements in 2nd dimension (columns)

@example
@group
size ([1, 2; 3, 4; 5, 6], 2)
    @result{} 2
@end group
@end example

Example 3: number of output arguments == number of dimensions

@example
@group
[nr, nc] = size ([1, 2; 3, 4; 5, 6])
    @result{} nr = 3
    @result{} nc = 2
@end group
@end example

Example 4: number of output arguments < number of dimensions

@example
@group
[nr, remainder] = size (ones (2, 3, 4, 5))
    @result{} nr = 2
    @result{} remainder = 60
@end group
@end example

@seealso{@ref{XREFnumel,,numel}, @ref{XREFndims,,ndims}, @ref{XREFlength,,length}, @ref{XREFrows,,rows}, @ref{XREFcolumns,,columns}, @ref{XREFsize_equal,,size_equal}, @ref{XREFcommon_size,,common_size}}
@end deftypefn


@c isempty libinterp/corefcn/data.cc
@anchor{XREFisempty}
@deftypefn {} {} isempty (@var{a})
Return true if @var{a} is an empty matrix (any one of its dimensions is
zero).
@seealso{@ref{XREFisnull,,isnull}, @ref{XREFisa,,isa}}
@end deftypefn


@c isnull libinterp/octave-value/ov-null-mat.cc
@anchor{XREFisnull}
@deftypefn {} {} isnull (@var{x})
Return true if @var{x} is a special null matrix, string, or single quoted
string.

Indexed assignment with such a null value on the right-hand side should delete
array elements.  This function is used in place of @code{isempty} when
overloading the indexed assignment method (@code{subsasgn}) for user-defined
classes.  @code{isnull} is used to distinguish between these two cases:

@code{@var{A}(@var{I}) = []}

and

@code{@var{X} = []; @var{A}(@var{I}) = @var{X}}

In the first assignment, the right-hand side is @code{[]} which is a special
null value.  As long as the index @var{I} is not empty, this code should
delete elements from @var{A} rather than perform assignment.

In the second assignment, the right-hand side is empty (because @var{X} is
@code{[]}), but it is @strong{not} null.  This code should assign the empty
value to elements in @var{A}.

An example from Octave's built-in char class demonstrates the interpreter
behavior when @code{isnull} is used correctly.

@example
@group
str = "Hello World";
nm = "Wally";
str(7:end) = nm                # indexed assignment
  @result{} str = Hello Wally
str(7:end) = ""                # indexed deletion
  @result{} str = Hello
@end group
@end example
@seealso{@ref{XREFisempty,,isempty}, @ref{XREFisindex,,isindex}}
@end deftypefn


@c sizeof libinterp/octave-value/ov.cc
@anchor{XREFsizeof}
@deftypefn {} {} sizeof (@var{val})
Return the size of @var{val} in bytes.
@seealso{@ref{XREFwhos,,whos}}
@end deftypefn


@c size_equal libinterp/corefcn/data.cc
@anchor{XREFsize_equal}
@deftypefn {} {} size_equal (@var{a}, @var{b}, @dots{})
Return true if the dimensions of all arguments agree.

Trailing singleton dimensions are ignored.  When called with a single argument,
or no argument, @code{size_equal} returns true.
@seealso{@ref{XREFsize,,size}, @ref{XREFnumel,,numel}, @ref{XREFndims,,ndims}, @ref{XREFcommon_size,,common_size}}
@end deftypefn


@c squeeze libinterp/corefcn/data.cc
@anchor{XREFsqueeze}
@deftypefn {} {} squeeze (@var{x})
Remove singleton dimensions from @var{x} and return the result.

Note that for compatibility with @sc{matlab}, all objects have
a minimum of two dimensions and row vectors are left unchanged.
@seealso{@ref{XREFreshape,,reshape}}
@end deftypefn

